History of Go
History of Go
thumb|*Outfit for the Go Game*, Polychrome woodblock print (surimono), C. 19th century, MET. The game of Go (; Old Chinese: **ɢʷəj grə* "surrounding game") is widely regarded as one of the world's oldest continuously played board games. Its origins are rooted in ancient China, with the earliest textual reference found in the *Zuo Zhuan* (c. 548 BCE). Its prestige and popularity rose over time, until it became considered one of the [[four-arts|four essential arts]] of a cultured Chinese scholar. By the Tang dynasty, Go had become a major pastime at the imperial court, which also established a system of ranks and Go tournaments. Go spread from China to Korea between the 5th and 7th centuries CE, where it became known as *baduk*, and later to Japan in the 7th century, gaining popularity at the imperial court from the 8th century onward.
Initially played on a 17×17 grid, the standard 19×19 board emerged by the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE). Ancient Chinese and Korean Go also began the game with set stone placements. This way of setting up the board was abandoned in 1600s Japan, where players adopted the now standard empty board way of starting the game. In Japan, from the early 17th century (1603 onwards), the Tokugawa shogunate established four official Go schools and patronized highly formalized competitive play, including annual castle games in the presence of the shōgun as well as introducing a formal ranking system. These institutions extensively advanced the level of play in Japan. With the Meiji Restoration and the collapse of shogunal patronage, modern professional Go organization took shape under the nihon-ki-in (Japan Go Association) in the early 20th century. Similar Chinese and Korean associations were also soon established to promote professional play.
Go's introduction to the Western world occurred in the late 19th century when German scholar oskar-korschelt published descriptions of the game after his time in Japan. Western organized play followed in the early 20th century with figures like edward-lasker founding clubs and publishing texts. Institutions such as the american-go-association (1935) and the German Go Association (1937) were established. In the post-war era, Japan played a major role in promoting Go globally through overseas centers, professional tours, and publications. By the late 20th and early 21st centuries, Go had evolved into a globally organized competitive activity, with numerous international championships, a thriving amateur community, and recognition by the international-go-federation. Another major development in the early 21st century was the rise of Go computers who could defeat the top Go professional players and help enthusiasts analyze Go games.
Chinese history In ancient China, Weiqi ("Surrounding Game", i.e. Go) grew to attain an important status among the elite classes and was often associated with ideas of self-cultivation, wisdom, and gentlemanly ideals. According to Japanese historian Miyoshi, Go flourished in China from about 200 to 600 CE, when the interest in art and literature was at a high point. Go also became one of the four cultivated arts of the Chinese scholar-gentleman, along with calligraphy, painting and playing the musical instrument guqin, and examinations of skill in those arts was used to qualify candidates for service in the imperial bureaucracy.
Early period Go's early history is debated, but there are various traditional myths about its existence. According to legend, the game was created as a teaching tool after the ancient Chinese Emperor Yao designed it for his son, Danzhu , to learn discipline, concentration, and balance.
The earliest written reference of the game is usually taken to be the historical annal Zuo Zhuan (), referring to a historical event of 548 BCE. It is also mentioned in Book XVII of the Analects of Confucius and in two of the books of Mencius (). In all of these works, the game is referred to as (; Old Chinese: **ɢrak*). There is also speculation that the rules were simple, similar to those of the simplified variant rules of "Pure Go".
Han, Wei, and Jin Dynasties thumb|Stone Weiqi board from the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), excavated from a tomb in Wangdu County, Hubei province thumb|Katsushika Ōi's (1800–1866) *Operating on Guan Yu's Arm*, depicting Guan Yu playing *weiqi* while undergoing surgery. Color on silk. During this period, Weiqi, along with the dice game "Liubo," were collectively called "Bóyì" (博弈). These games spread among the upper classes. During the Western Han, the luck-based "Liubo" was more popular than Weiqi. But by the Eastern Han era (25–220 CE), Weiqi gradually gained more esteem as it was seen as analogous to military strategy. Ban Gu's Yì Zhǐ (The Essentials of Go) is considered the world's first specialized book on Weiqi.
Chinese archaeologists have discovered a broken piece of a pottery go board from the Western Han dynasty (206 BCE – 24 CE) in Shaanxi Province. This is the earliest discovery of an existing board unearthed in China. The board was found in the ruins of a watchtower at the tombs of Emperor Jingdi and Empress Wang Zhi of the Western Han dynasty. The broken fragment of the board measures 5.7 cm to 28.5 cm long, 17 cm to 19.7 cm wide and 3.6 cm thick. Li Gang, a research fellow with the Shaanxi Provincial Archaeological Research Institute, said that this board might have been made from a floor tile, and that it did not belong to the royal family since the carvings are too rough. Li said the board could have been made by the tomb guards who played go to pass the time. "That proves that go was being played not only by nobles, but also by ordinary people like tomb guards, more than 2,000 years ago", Li noted.
In 1954 a complete Go board made out of stone was found in a tomb dating to the Eastern Han dynasty (25–220) in Wangdu County, Hebei Province. This board has a 17 × 17 grid, which confirms the statement by the 3rd century author Handan Chun in the [[classic-of-arts]] that Go was at this time played on a 17 × 17 grid:
<blockquote> The go board has 17 lines along its length and breadth, making 289 points in all. The black and white stones each number 150. </blockquote>While Weiqi was popular with many groups during the Han, it was also criticized by Confucian authors and Han historians. Confucian moralists saw the game as a waste of time, as the pastime of gamblers and as a game that only distracted gentlemen from the proper Confucian arts like music, ritual and government duties.
Golden Age of Weiqi thumb|The opening section of the *[[dunhuang-go-manual* (6th century CE)]] thumb|A ceramic 19 x 19 board preserved from the Sui dynasty (581–618 CE) thumb|Li Jing playing Go with his brothers. Painting by Zhou Wenju (fl. 942–961), Southern Tang dynasty.
During the Northern and Southern Dynasties period, Weiqi became popular among literati and refined scholars in the South. The board expanded to 19x19 during this time, as can be seen from various historical sources. The first book dedicated to Go, the [[dunhuang-go-manual]] ( CE), dates to this period. It was found in the Mogao Caves in Dunhuang, and discusses the game as played on a 19x19 board. More pre-modern Chinese books devoted to the game were written during the Tang and Song dynasties.
不得贪胜 (Bùdé tān shèng) - Avoid Greed or you Won't Win: This rule advises against overreaching for a larger win than the position allows. A secure, small-margin victory is far superior to a risky play for a big win that backfires and turns the game. It emphasizes solid, error-free play over ambitious but vulnerable attacks. # 入界宜缓 (Rù jiè yí huǎn) - Enter Opponent's Territory Cautiously: When invading or reducing an opponent's territorial framework, one should not rush in deeply or blindly. The approach should be gradual, light, and flexible, with a plan for retreat. This avoids creating heavy, vulnerable groups that become a burden and a target for attack. # 攻彼顾我 (Gōng bǐ gù wǒ) - Look After Yourself When Attacking: A true attack in Go is not merely about capturing stones; it is about strengthening your own position. Before launching an assault, you must ensure your own groups are secure and without weaknesses. The ideal attack is one that simultaneously pressures the opponent and solidifies your own influence and territory. # 弃子争先 (Qì zǐ zhēng xiān) - Sacrifice Stones to Seize the Initiative: This is a core strategic concept. The initiative, here seen as the power to make a move that demands a response, is extremely valuable. It is often wise to willingly sacrifice a few stones to regain the initiative, allowing you to play a crucial move elsewhere on the board. The global gain from leading the play outweighs the local loss of the sacrificed stones. # 舍小就大 (Shě xiǎo jiù dà) - Relinquish the Small to Save the Large: A player must constantly evaluate the relative value of every point on the board. The "large" refers to high-value points that affect overall influence and territory, while the "small" are less consequential areas. Superior strategy involves ignoring minor, local skirmishes to secure the biggest, most important plays that determine the outcome of the entire game. # 逢危须弃 (Féng wēi xū qì) - When in Danger, Sacrifice: If a group of stones is under severe attack and cannot be saved without incurring massive losses elsewhere, the correct strategy is to abandon it. Trying desperately to save a "dead" group will only compound your problems, making your other groups weak and handing your opponent even more influence. A timely sacrifice can turn a crisis into a manageable situation. # 慎勿轻速 (Shèn wù qīng sù) - Be Prudent; Avoid Hasty Moves: This rule cautions against playing quickly and without deep reading. Every move should be considered carefully for its consequences and how it fits into a larger plan. Hasty, superficial play leads to blunt attacks, weak shapes, and critical errors. True strength lies in thoughtful, calculated, and "thick" play that builds a resilient position. # 动须相应 (Dòng xū xiāng yìng) - Moves Must Work Together: Your strategy should be coherent and interconnected. A move in one area of the board should have a purpose that relates to and supports your groups in other areas (as well as responds well to your opponent's moves and positioning). Before starting a fight or making a strategic play, you should prepare with forcing moves that build a network of support, ensuring your actions are effective and not isolated. # 彼强自保 (Bǐ qiáng zì bǎo) - When the Opponent is Strong, Strengthen Yourself: Do not directly confront your opponent's areas of overwhelming strength and thickness. Playing near their solid formations is inherently dangerous and gives their strength purpose. Instead, the smart response is to keep your distance and focus on reinforcing your own weak groups, ensuring they are safe and stable before engaging elsewhere. # 势孤取和 (Shì gū qǔ hé) - When Isolated and Weak, Seek Balance: If you have a group that is weak, isolated, and under threat, seeking an all-out fight is often suicidal. The wiser course is to "make peace" by finding a way to help the group settle and live simply, even if it means conceding some local points or influence. This avoids a devastating loss and preserves potential for the future, allowing you to continue the game on balanced terms.
thumb|Carved *weiqi* pieces of the Liao dynasty (916-1125 CE) Today, these phrases are considered classical Weiqi theory and are often posted in Go clubs on placards or signs. Legend says Wang Jixin dreamed of an Azure Dragon spitting out the Qí Jīng Jiǔ Bù (Nine Part Go Classic) and bestowing it upon him. From that time on his skill improved. Another legend from says that Wang Jixin, fleeing the An Lushan Rebellion, went to Shu Province and witnessed a game between a mother-in-law and daughter-in-law on Mount Li. The Song Dynasty book Wàng Yōu Qīng Lè Jí (Collection of Carefree Pure Joy) contains a game record by Wang Jixin titled "One Move Resolves Two Double Ataris" (some say this game was between Gu Shiyan and the Japanese Crown Prince).
In the 25th year of Kaiyuan (737 CE), the player Yang Jiying went as an envoy to Korea, and no Silla player could match his skill. About a hundred years later, Gu Shiyan played against the Japanese Crown Prince in Chang'an. This can be considered the first formal Sino-Japanese match. In this game, Gu Shiyan decisively secured a victory with a move later called the "Divine Touch".
Later dynasties thumb|Black and white *weiqi* pieces dated to the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368 CE)
During the Song Dynasty (960-1279), Weiqi remained popular and many treatises on Go strategy and technique were written. Wang Ni's The Classic of Weiqi (1050 CE) in thirteen fascicles was one early example of the Song era treatises. It combined Confucian, Daoist, and Buddhist philosophy with explanations of the game and strategies. This text links the black and white pieces to the concept of Yin and Yang, and the three hundred and sixty one intersections of the board to the days of the year.
Throughout most of the Chinese history of Go, the game began with several stones already on the board (often two stones for each player). The system of fixed stone placements was termed Zuozi Zhi (座子制). The Japanese abolished this system in the 1600s, but it remained the main way to set up the game in China until 1949. Stone scoring games continued until no more stones could be placed on the board without leading to the death of a stone formation. Then the total number of stones were counted as points.
Another important treatise from the Song is Zhang Ni's Thirteen Chapters on the Go Classic (Qí Jīng Shísān Piān), which profoundly influenced later Weiqi theory and practice. During the Northern Song period, Li Yimin (李逸民) wrote extensively on Weiqi, including works like the Collection of Carefree Pure Joy (Wàng Yōu Qīng Lè Jí), Go Positions (Qí Shì), Subtleties (Zào Wēi), Essential Principles (Jīng Lǐ), and Secrets of Go (Qí Jué). The Collection of Carefree Pure Joy included the first collection of tsumegos (go problems). During the Kangxi era, a famous ten-game match known as the "Blood and Tears Commentary" (Xuè Lèi Piān) was played between Huang Longshi, who gave a three-stone handicap to Xu Xingyou. In the fourth year of the Qianlong era (1739), Shi Xiangxia and Fan Xiping played the renowned "Ten Games at Danghu" (Dànghú Shí Jú) in Pinghu, Zhejiang.
The decline in the official status of weiqi from the golden age of the Tang left the economic income of top players during the Ming and Qing periods chronically unstable. Besides teaching Weiqi and instructing disciples, players' income primarily relied on "rewards" or "stakes" from spectators (mainly high officials, wealthy merchants, and upper-class literati). In peaceful and prosperous times when the nobility had leisure time, non-official Weiqi activities flourished, and players' lives were stable. Wang Xie, in the preface to Yì Mò (Ink on Go), described the vibrant Go scene of the early Qing as follows: "Masters vied for supremacy, playing not less than a thousand games," and "Several dozen national masters within the realm traveled between the Jiang and Huai rivers." However, in hard times, the livelihood of top players became very difficult. Thus, during the war torn late Qing, the standard of Weiqi play in China naturally gradually declined, and fewer top players emerged. Great players who were not wealthy lived a precarious lifestyle based on winnings from their games. While Weiqi itself remained a high art, players were often looked down upon as being on the same level as actors or fortune-tellers.
Go in Tibet and Mongolia
The game of Go spread into Tibet and Mongolia by at least the early eighth century, a period when Chinese envoys described Tibetan raiders as engaging in gambling, trumpet playing, drumming, and Go. Archaeological finds, including boards and illustrations in Dunhuang, provide evidence of the game's diffusion along the Silk Road into Central Asia. Tibet in particular retained a preference for the 17×17 grid, even after the Chinese and Japanese traditions standardized the 19×19 board. These artifacts suggest that Go became deeply rooted in the social and religious life of the region. The second theory suggests Go was introduced during Chinese colonization around 109 BCE, when Chinese cultural influence expanded in the Korean peninsula.
Archaeological and literary evidence supports Go's presence in Korean culture from an early period. The game appears in a poem from the Silla kingdom dated 737 CE, while a stone Go board from 880 CE at the Buddhist temple of Hae-in bears historical significance as it was reportedly used by the renowned scholar Ch'oe Ch'i-weon.
The term "sunjang" itself reflects the uncertainty surrounding the game's precise nature, as it can be written in different character combinations with varying interpretations. The most common rendering, meaning "touring officers," suggests either a military context where guards moved between posts (mirroring strategic positioning on the board), or refers to the ritual placement of starting stones on 17 designated points around the board, traditionally called "guard points" rather than the more common "flower points." An alternative interpretation, "following one's seniors," may reflect connections to the hierarchical administrative systems of the time. Hon'inbō was later granted the official title of [[godokoro]] by Tokugawa Ieyasu, making him the official government head of the Japanese Go world and the Shogun's Go teacher. Shūsai would often adjourn the game and retreat home to study the game with his students, and it was rumored that the move which saved him was an idea of one of his students. The controversy and public attention to this game made it one of the most famous Go matches in history. Honinbo Shūsai also played another famous game with Minoru Kitani, which was popularized in the novel [[the-master-of-go]] by yasunari-kawabata. Shūsai lost by a few points and surrendered his Honinbo title to the Nihon Ki-in, dying a few months later as the last figure of a classic Go dynasty. The state of Chinese Go improved under Premier Zhou Enlai, who worked to revive the national weiqi team. Also, there is no climactic ending in Go (such as checkmate in chess). New players often have trouble figuring out when a game of Go is over. Other theories center around the existence of fundamental differences in the level and type of thinking required by Go players as opposed to chess players. While pure analytical thought and the ability to plan many moves in advance are advantageous in chess, in Go a more intuitive approach based on pattern recognition and experience is stressed.
The first detailed description of Go in a European language, De Circumveniendi Ludo Chinensium (About the Chinese encircling game), was written in Latin by British orientalist Thomas Hyde, and was included in his 1694 treatise on Oriental board games, De Ludis Orientalibus (About Oriental games, pp. 195–201). The German philosopher and polymath Leibniz (1646–1716) also published an entire article about Go which included an illustration of the game, Leibniz also wrote that he did not understand the game fully.
By the early 20th century, Go had spread throughout the German and Austro-Hungarian empires. In 1905, edward-lasker learned the game while in Berlin. When he moved to New York, Lasker founded the New York Go Club together with (amongst others) Arthur Smith, who had learned of the game while touring the East and had published the book The Game of Go in 1908. Lasker's book Go and Go-moku (1934) helped spread the game throughout the US,
For most of the 20th century, the Japan Go Association played a leading role in spreading Go outside East Asia, publishing the English-language magazine Go Review in the 1960s, establishing go-centers in the US, Europe and South America, and often sending professional teachers on tour to Western nations. Go Review became a major source for Western players.
In 1965, first Go competitions were held in the USSR at the Palace of Culture in Leningrad. The Go section was organized by the Japan-USSR society and operated together with the local chess club. In August 1974, the first competition with the participation of professional players from Japan was held, and in 1975, a toy factory in the Moscow region began serial production of Go sets.
The 1970s saw richard-bozulich found the influential Ishi Press (now Kiseido Publishing Company), which began to publish the first translations of high level Go strategy books along with instructional books for beginners and the magazine Go World. Other Go focused publishing presses followed, like Yutopian Press and Slate and Shell Press. The Go books published by these publishers helped many players in the West to advance into the intermediate ranks. It was not until 2000 that American-born Michael Redmond, achieved a professional 9 dan rating, the top rank awarded by East Asian Go associations. During the 2010s, the Korea Baduk Association aided the american-go-association in holding the first major professional qualifying tournament in the United States, as depicted in the 2017 documentary "The Surrounding Game". The first 1 dan professionals who gained the title in the United States (Andy Liu and Gansheng Shi) arose from this tournament.
One of the most influential developments was the rise in Go playing computer programs to the level of professional strength.
Since 2016, computer programs like the open source KataGo are regularly used by amateurs and pros to review games and test their skills. They are also used in Go computer games and online servers. Go programs have also led to new strategies. The advent of Go AIs has challenged traditional conceptions of Go as a uniquely human lifelong spiritual and intellectual pursuit. Historically, professional Go players viewed their craft similarly to philosophers or scholars, dedicating themselves to an endless quest for deeper understanding. The traditional "uchi-deshi" system, where students lived with their masters to study the game intensively, embodied this philosophical approach. However, AI's demonstration that the highest levels of play could be achieved through computational power rather than lifetime contemplation has created an existential crisis for many professionals. In spite of this, many professional players have embraced AI as an essential training tool. In Korea's professional circuit, serious competitors maintain AI setups at home, and success increasingly depends on one's ability to learn from and emulate AI play. This shift has produced both positive and negative consequences. For example, Go computer programs have helped young and old players advance or revive their play. And yet, the use of computers also led to a homogenization of playing styles as many professionals increasingly imitate AI approaches, abandoning distinctive and creative personal styles that previously attracted fans.
Furthermore, the teaching profession within Go has faced significant economic challenges. Demand for professional-level teaching games and private lessons has declined substantially, as AI can provide high-level analysis and review services previously exclusive to human professionals. This change has particularly affected "teaching professionals" who supplemented tournament earnings through instruction. While AI cannot fully replace human teachers in explaining concepts or providing personalized guidance, many parents and students now prefer AI-assisted learning over expensive professional instruction. This shift has forced many teaching professionals to seek alternative livelihoods or adapt their pedagogical approaches. The COVID-19 pandemic's shift to online play also exacerbated concerns about AI-assisted cheating. Organizations have implemented stricter guidelines, including electronics prohibitions and mandatory proctoring. High-profile cheating accusations, even when disproven, reflect the growing technological challenges facing the Go community.
The use of Go computer programs has also introduced numerous tactical and strategic innovations to Go theory. Moves previously considered questionable or crude, such as direct 3-3 point invasions, have been validated and adopted at the highest levels. AI's superior ability to evaluate global positions rather than conduct deep local calculations has shifted strategic emphasis throughout the game. Paradoxically, while AI has made some traditional styles obsolete, it has also validated previously unconventional approaches. Lesser-known openings like the San ren sei (Three Star Points in a Row), Southern Cross, and even the eccentric "Black hole" opening have gained legitimacy through AI analysis.